Gaulin, S. J. C. & Fitzgerald, R. W. (1989). Sexual selection for spatial-learning ability. Animal Behaviour, 37, 322–331.
+Goy, R. W., Bercovitch, F. B., & McBrair, M. C. (1988). Behavioral masculinization is independent of genital masculinization in prenatally androgenized female rhesus macaques. Hormones and Behavior, 22, 552–571
+Berenbaum, S. A. & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203–206.
+
+Berenbaum, S. A. & Snyder, E. (1995). Early hormonal infl uences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation. Developmental Psychology, 31, 31–42.
+
+Iijima, M., Arisaka, O., Minamoto, F., & Arai, Y. (2001). Sex differences in children’s free drawings: A study on girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior, 40, 99–104
+
+Servin, A., Nordenström, A., Larsson, A., & Bohlin, G. (2003). Prenatal androgens and gender-typed behavior: A study of girls with mild and severe forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology, 39, 440–450.
+
+Berenbaum, S. A., Duck, S. C., & Bryk, K. (2000). Behavioral effects of prenatal versus postnatal androgen excess in children with 21-hydroxylase-defi cient congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 727–733.
+
+Hines, M., Golombok, S., Rust, J., Johnston, K. J., Golding, J., & Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children Study Team. (2002). Testosterone during pregnancy and gender role behavior of preschool children: A longitudinal, population study. Child Development, 73, 1678–1687.
+
+The boy analogue of the CAH studies—
+Jürgensen, M., Hiort, O., Holterhus, P. M., & Thyen, U. (2007). Gender role behavior in children with XY karyotype and disorders of sex development. Hormones and Behavior, 51, 443–453.
+
+Alexander, G. M. & Hines, M. (2002). Sex differences in response to children’s toys in nonhuman primates (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus). Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 467–479
+
+Hassett, J. M., Siebert, E. R., & Wallen, K. (2004). Sexually differentiated toy preferences in rhesus monkeys. Hormones and Behavior, 46, 91.
+
+Serbin, L. A., Poulin-Dubois, D., Colburne, K. A., Sen, M. G., & Eichstedt, J. A. (2001). Gender stereotyping in infancy: Visual preferences for and knowledge of gender-stereotyped toys in the second year. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 7–15.
+
+Benenson, J. F., Liroff, E. R., Pascal, S. J., & Cioppa, G. D. (1997). Propulsion: a behavioural expression of masculinity. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 37–50
+
+Dessens, A. B., Slijper, F. M. E., & Drop, S. L. S. (2005). Gender dysphoria and gender change in chromosomal females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 389–397
+
+Lenroot, R. K., Gogtay, N., Greenstein, D. K., Wells, E. M., Wallace, G. L., Clasen, L. S., et al. (2007). Sexual dimor-
+phism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence. NeuroImage, 15, 1065–1073
+
+Skrypnek, B. J. & Snyder, M. (1982). On the self-perpetuating nature of stereotypes about women and men. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 277–291
----
CAH occurs is autosomal and occurs in both males and females, but the reason we only talk about CAH girls is that the effects on boys are less noticeable
-> CYP21 is on chromosome 6 and encodes an enzyme normally present in the adrenal gland called 21-hydroxylase (21-OH). Individuals with CAH due to 21-OH defi ciency are unable to produce enough cortisol to suppress the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This results in an accumulation of products that normally become cortisol, which in turn results in increased production of androgen from the adrenal gland. This excess androgen has many of the same effects as testosterone produced by the testes in males
+> CYP21 is on chromosome 6 and encodes an enzyme normally present in the adrenal gland called 21-hydroxylase (21-OH). Individuals with CAH due to 21-OH deficiency are unable to produce enough cortisol to suppress the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This results in an accumulation of products that normally become cortisol, which in turn results in increased production of androgen from the adrenal gland. This excess androgen has many of the same effects as testosterone produced by the testes in males
There's a gradation in CAH—you can have a little 21-OH, or none at all
p. 138
> If you were asked to pick a single psychological characteristic that differentiates boys and girls, you could not do better than the toys and activities that engage them
-> This is critical because if children do not know if they
-are boys or girls, or that toys are identifi ed as being for boys or for girls, they cannot be using this information to guide their toy preferences
+> This is critical because if children do not know if they are boys or girls, or that toys are identifi ed as being for boys or for girls, they cannot be using this information to guide their toy preferences
p. 127
> Some of the "neglect" regarding meta-analysis may reflect the lack of controversy about whether the differences exist
intrauterine position in animals that have litters
+Goy et al. gave androgens to pregnant rhesus monkeys at different times in pregnancy. Early administration masculinized genitals. Behavioral masculization along different dimensions varied with timing!
+early admin—more mounting, less grooming
+late admin—more mounting of peers only (not mom), more rough play
+
+> pretty normal variations in hormones are responsible for pretty normal variations in behavior
+
+evolutionary logic to why female default! (I had heard the observation before, but not the deep structural reason)
+> both male and female fetuses are exposed to high levels estrogens from the mother, so if estrogen affected sexual differentiation in utero, then males would be exposed to a substance that would feminize them
+
+CAH girls are a goldmine for studying organizational effects: exposed to androgens prenatally, but not afterwards (there's medication for the disease)
+
+modern CAH studies were very careful: study CAH girls and unaffected sisters, videotape the interaction and have it scored by someone who doesn't know which kid has CAH; also study boys to make sure its the hormones and not the disease
+
+Measured interests several different ways, and it got replicated, including in Japan
+
+> They also say that they wish that their daughters with CAH were less masculine than they are, and, interestingly, that their daughters without CAH were more masculine than they are (Servin, Nordenström, Larsson, & Bohlin, 2003).
+
+and it's linear!!
+
+(authors are not sci-fi fans and use "people" and "human" interchangably)
+> effect in people as it does in other species.
+
+> When infants look at visual stimuli, boys prefer movement and girls prefer form and color (Serbin, Poulin-Dubois, Colbourne, Sen, & Eichstedt, 2001). In childhood activities, boys use motion more than girls do (Benenson, Liroff, Pascal, & Cioppa, 1997). In drawings, boys tend to draw mechanical and moving objects, use dark and cold colors, and have a bird’s-eye perspective, whereas girls draw human fi gures, fl owers, and butterfl ies, use light and warm colors, and array items in a row on the ground.
+
+A section on gender ID, oh boy :/
+> androgen does not appear to have a large effect on gender identity,
+
+Important!!
+> if anything, gender identity is more predictable from rearing than from prenatal androgen exposure (Mazur, 2005; Zucker, 1999).
+those cites are—
+Mazur, T. (2005). Gender dysphoria and gender change in androgen insensitivity or micropenis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 411–421.
+Zucker, K. J. (1999). Intersexuality and gender identity differentiation. Annual Review of Sex Research, 10, 1–69
+
+> data from typical children show the independence of gender identity and gender-typed interests (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006).
+Ruble, D. N., Martin, C. L., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2006). Gender development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development. (6th ed., pp. 858–932). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
+
+> The social environment of these children is probably complicated. It is conceivable that the girls' boy-typical play made parents question the initial decision about female rearing, and this questioning was conveyed to the children.
+Well, yes
+
+> most XY individuals with abnormal or absent penis (including, but not limited to ablatio penis and cloacal exstrophy) who are reared as girls grow up to identify as girls and women and to be happy with their assigned sex (Meyer-Bahlburg, 2005a)
+
+p. 173
+> Compared with girls, boys are seen to have a larger amygdala (important in processing emotion) and a smaller caudate (known primarily for its role in regulating voluntary movement), and perhaps a smaller hippocampus (important for learning and memory).
+
+p. 182
+> children learn about the behavior of both males and females, and yet they choose to imitate the behavior done by others of their sex.
+
+p. 205
+> "the cognitive-developmental view holds that the child’s difficulties in establishing gender defi nition closely parallel his diffi culties in establishing stable defi nitions of physical concepts in general and that the former are resolved as the latter are" (Kohlberg, 1966, p. 94).
+
+p. 206
+conservation—Noticing that changing clothing doesn't change one's sex, is the same Piagetian developmental milestone as noticing that pouring water into a narrower glass doesn't change the volume
+
+Schema theory—people asked to recall stories from a foreign culture after a delay tend to replace them with more familiar elements. Similarly, counter-stereotypical information is harder to remember (and people are less confident when they do remember)
+
+Liben '77 "Memory in the context of cognitive development"—children will draw a tilted flagpole on a hillside; when asked months later, they sometime produce something closer to the original stimulus—their priors got better in the intermediate months
+
+p. 211
+> experimental research has shown that when children’s multiple classifi cation skills are enhanced through intervention, those children are better able to remember gender nontraditional stories (Bigler & Liben, 1992).
+
+p. 213
+> one of us was in the campground bathroom when a mother and her preschool son entered. The boy saw a small sink next to the adult sinks, and he asked if it was for boys. His mother explained, "No this is the girls' bathroom, but you're a little boy, so it’s okay." Not satisfied, he said, "No, is this for boys?" The mother tried again to explain that it was the girls' bathroom, but increasingly insistent, her son asked "No, no. Is the sink for boys?" Then, she looked at the little sink, and seemed to sort of give up, and said, "Yes, this is a boy sink."
+
+Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flament, 1971 "Social categorization and intergroup behaviour": randomly labeling someone as an over- or underestimator caused them to favor their group later
+
+Gelman, Taylor, and Nguyen 2004 "Mother-child conversations about gender": moms often say "boy"/"girl" even when we have a word for "child"
+
+> As defined and studied by Gelman (2003), essentialism involves the beliefs that first, members of categories are alike in important ways, including ways that may not yet be known or observable, and second, that there is some underlying causal source for those shared qualities.
+This is correct!!! Gelman 2003 is _The essential child: Origins of essentialism in everyday thought._
+
+p. 229-230:
+Leinbach and Fagot 1993 "Categorical habituation to male and female faces: Gender schematic processing in infancy": babies were seen to respond to male/female headshots differently, but it looks like they were responding to hair/clothing cues
+
+p. 237 This 2009 book is the high point; it's only going to get worse
+> we know of no research on children’s knowledge and understanding of this particular challenge to the traditionally assumed "fact" of gender constancy, and thus our discussion focuses on children’s developing understanding of traditional gender constancy that assumes that birth sex is permanent and immutable.
+
+Bradbard and Endsley 1983, "The effects of sex-typed labeling on preschool children's information-seeking and retention"; describing novel objects (a pizza cutter or a buglar alarm) as toys "for boys/girls" did affect the children's behavior
+
+p.264
+effect of stereotypes on memory is manipulable in individuals!
+
+p. 271
+male preference is disappearing in Western culture
+
+p. 272
+types and mechanisms of parental influence—
+1. creating a gendered world (choosing names, clothes, activities)
+2. differential treatment
+3. direct instruction (boys don't cry &c.)
+4. parents as models
+
+boys names tend to become girls names
+
+p. 275
+> children's perceptions about their own ability (especially for girls in math) has been shown to be influenced more by their parents' perceptions about the children than by the children’s own grades (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Herbert & Stipek, 2005; Jodl et al., 2001).
+
+Lytton & Romney, 1991 "Parents' differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis": effect size of chore assignments is around d=0.3-0.5 ; but boy-only families still give the boys domestic chores
-----
+https://www.fatherly.com/health-science/what-age-do-transgender-kids-know-trans/
+
+https://www.facebook.com/groups/2264685517005985/posts/3513322952142229/
+> The kind of thing I find when cleaning Lily's room. The other day she made a petition to "save animals" but neither Jeff nor I would sign I unless she made it more specific.
+> [image, drawing] SAVE OUR PLANIT FRUM GRENHEWS GASIS
+
+https://jessesingal.substack.com/p/a-swedish-investigative-journalist
+
+https://www.transgendertrend.com/childhood-social-transition/
+
+I'm still a Wells Fargo customer because my father got my a savings account for me in 1992, when I was four years old—I just never bothered to switch
+
+https://sillyolme.wordpress.com/2022/05/05/transsexual-kids-do-know/
+
+"Who do you like?" as culturally transmitted sexual norms
+
+https://segm.org/early-social-gender-transition-persistence
+
+https://suedonym.substack.com/p/a-tale-of-two-studies?s=r
+
+https://jessesingal.substack.com/p/science-vs-cited-seven-studies-to
+
+https://pitt.substack.com/p/true-believer
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